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tants, and CIC must be mutually sup- portive. All use the same planned track, and if circumstances require deviation from the plan it is vital that everyone understand the new plan."

According to Boyce, ships rarely ground in familiar waters. "Unfamiliar waters require very careful planning and a very disciplined approach to execu- tion. All the available tools for knowing where the ship is relative to danger have to be used and the team has to be profi- cient in how to use them. The ship must have a full toolbox of abort and fail-safe maneuvers and be prepared to stop or slow when the 'risk meter' goes into the red. A non-complacent attitude of 'chronic unease' is absolutely necessary and communications among all the key team members must be effective."

Ships have access to new and better technology, but they also need the best available training on how to use it, says

Boyce.

Barber agrees. "GPS is so convenient and usually so accurate that there is a strong temptation to rely upon it to the virtual exclusion of other sensors. This is a mistake. We need to habitually compare GPS results with all other sen- sors, particularly including fathometer, radar, and visual."

Retired Rear Admiral Dave Ramsey says that responsibility for collisions must often be placed above the ship- board level. "Senior leadership needs to take an interest in what's happening. We need to get the right technology on our ships, and we need to make sure our people know how to use it. For exam- ple, there's no standard fleet course that teaches Automated Radar Plotting

Aides. We still have Navy people who don't know how to use it." "In the commercial world the causes of groundings show similar error chains," says MSI's Ed Lynch. "Complacency or fatigue on the part of the pilot and the bridge team not taking charge early enough.

The bridge team does not give the pilot the assistance requested or he does not ask for their assistance or ignores the info provided."

Planning and anticipation are impor- tant. Says Barber, "We must think through in advance how to react to potential problems. What if we have an engine or rudder malfunction? In what direction is deep water? Where are the shoals and narrow places in the chan- nel? Current? Ship traffic? Danger bearings? The ship control party must be prepared to react appropriately to any emergency."

In unfamiliar waters a written plan and a carefully considered track are particu- larly important, Barber says. "Any requirement to deviate from the plan is a red flag and needs prudent evaluation.

Saving a few minutes at the price of a riskier transit is almost never justified." 24 Maritime Reporter & Engineering News

Eye on the Navy

A Standard Point of Reference

By Robert Freeman,

Office of the Navigator of the Navy

Since antiquity, mapmakers have struggled with the problem of representing a bumpy, ellipsoid (the earth) on a flat, rectangular surface (the map). To do this requires some compromise in the relative position of individual points to each other.

Historically, mapmakers have picked a point of interest to them to be the center of their depiction, and placed various features in their relative position to that point.

For instance, an early English mapmaker might have chosen to place England at the center of his chart. More than just having personal appeal, this makes sense in terms of accuracy, since the farther one is from the reference point, generally, the less accurate the depiction. This was fine for giving a general depiction of landmasses and water bodies. By laying a coordinate system (longitude and latitude, for exam- ple) over the geographical features, you could provide a frame of reference that could be shared by other users. But maps based on different central points could differ radically in the coordinate position of a location away from those centers.

In the modern world of interoperability and precision positioning, this problem is greatly amplified. The solution is to reference each chart and map to a "datum."

A datum is a mathematical model of the shape of the earth used as a basic refer- ence to calculate position coordinates, heights, and distances, as well as to make maps and charts. The datum defines the point from which all positions are refer- enced. For example, the WGS 84 point of origin is the center of the earth's mass, as measured by the 1984 World Geodetic Survey (hence WGS 84). The North

American Datum, NAD 27, is referenced to a ranch in Kansas, considered to be the approximate center of the continental United States. For the Tokyo datum, all points are referenced to the center of Tokyo. There are literally hundreds of datums in use.

The DOD standard datum is WGS 84, and this is the one to which GPS defaults, but there is no "world standard datum." GPS gives positions based on WGS 84, so a position plotted on a chart using a different datum could differ by as much as a half mile with respect to ports, and up to two miles with respect to isolated islands!

Several ships have run aground due to a poor understanding of datums!

This problem becomes more critical when the subject is targeting. During the mil- itary action in Lebanon in 1983, Marine Corps spotters ashore were directing the naval gunfire from a battleship. Unfortunately, the ship was using WGS 72 coordi- nates, while the Marines were using European Datum coordinates. The target was missed and shells landed uncomfortably close to friendly forces. Fortunately, there were no casualties! Until a world standard datum is adopted, the solution to this problem must reside in training. And while algorithms exist for translating from one datum to another, this is no substitute for understanding. GPS is a wonderful inno- vation for navigation, providing instantaneous, real-time fixes at an accuracy that far exceeds conventional methods.

But navigators must be aware of its limitations and understand how to compensate when using charts based on other datums.

This Day in Navy History

July 1, 1797 - Naval Regulations passed by Congress 1850 - Naval School at Annapolis renamed Naval Academy 1911 - Trial of first Navy aircraft, Curtiss A-1. The designer,

Glenn Curtiss, makes first flight in Navy's first aircraft, A-1, at

Lake Keuka, NY, then prepares LT Theodore G. Ellyson, the first naval aviator, for his two solo flights in A-1. 1918 - USS Covington hit without warning by two torpedoes from

German Submarine U-86 and sank the next day 1972 - Date of rank of Rear Admiral Samuel Lee Gravely, Jr., who was first U.S. Navy Admiral of African-American descent.

July 2, 1923 - Commissioning of Naval Research Laboratory,

Washington, DC. 1945 - USS Barb (SS-220) bombards Japanese installations on

Kaihyo Island, Japan; first successful use of rockets against shore positions.

July 3, 1898 - At Battle of Santiago, Cuba, RADM Sampson's squadron destroys Spanish fleet

July 4, 1776 - American colonies declare their independence from

Great Britain 1777 - John Paul Jones hoists first Stars and Stripes flag on

Ranger at Portsmouth, NH. 1842 - First test of electrically operated underwater torpedo sinks gunboat Boxer

July 6, 1747 - Birth of John Paul Jones at Arbigland, Scotland. 1908 - CDR Robert Peary sails in Roosevelt from New York to explore Arctic. 1911 - First naval aviation base established at Annapolis, MD. 1976 - 1st women enter Naval Academy.

July 7, 1798 - Congress rescinds treaties with France; Quasi War begins with Frigate Delaware capturing French privateer,

Croyable. 1846 - Commodore John D. Sloat lands at Monterey and claims

California for U.S. 1916 - Thomas A. Edison becomes head of Naval Consulting

Board which screens inventions for use by the Navy

July 8, 1853 - Commodore Matthew C. Perry sails his squadron into Tokyo Bay.

July 9, 1918 - Henry Ford launches first of 100 Eagle boats.

July 10, 1934 - USS Houston takes Franklin Delano Roosevelt on first visit of U.S. President to South America. 1943 - Naval gunfire help Allied troops land on Sicily. It was first extensive use of LST's and smaller landing craft to deliver heavy equipment over the beach.

July 12, 1836 - Commissioning of Charles H. Haswell as first regularly appointed Engineer Officer. 1916 - North Carolina is first Navy ship to carry and operate air- craft 1988 - SECDEF approves opening Navy's Underwater

Construction Teams, fleet oiler, ammunition ships, and combat stores ships to women. 1990 - Commander Rosemary B. Mariner becomes first woman to command an operational aviation squadron (VAQ-34).

July 13, 1939 - Appointment of RADM Richard Byrd as com- manding officer of 1939-1941 Antarctic Expedition.

July 14, 1813 - LT John M. Gamble, the first marine to command a ship in battle (prize vessel Greenwich in capture of British whaler Seringapatam) 1952 - Laying of keel of USS Forrestal, the first 59,900 ton air- craft carrier.

July 15, 1942 - First photographic interpretation unit set up in the

Pacific.

July 16, 1862 - Congress creates rank of Rear Admiral. David G.

Farragut is named the first Rear Admiral 1912 - Rear Admiral Bradley Fiske receives patent for torpedo plane or airborne torpedo. 1915 - First Navy ships, battleships Ohio, Missouri, and

Wisconsin transit Panama Canal.

July 17, 1858 - U.S. sloop Niagara departs Queenstown, Ireland, to assist in laying first trans-Atlantic telegraph cable. 1975 - Docking in spaceof the U.S. Apollo (Apollo 18) and Soviet

Soyuz (Soyuz 19) space craft. This was the first manned space flight conducted jointly by the 2 nations. Former naval aviator

Vance D. Brand was the Apollo Command Module Pilot.

July 18, 1775 - Continental Congress resolves that each colony provide armed vessels 1779 - Commodore Abraham Whipple's squadron captures 11 prizes in largest prize value of Revolutionary War. 1792 - John Paul Jones dies in Paris, France 1966 - Launch of Gemini 10 with LCDR John W. Young, USN as

Command Pilot. Mission involved 43 orbits at an altitude of 412.2 nautical miles and lasted 2 days, 22 hours, and 46 minutes. 1973 - Task Force 78, Mine Countermeasures Force, departs waters of North Vietnam after completing their minesweeping operations of 1,992 tow hours for the cost of $20,394,000.

July 19, 1886 - Atlanta, the first steel-hulled American cruiser armed with breechloading rifled guns, is commissioned. 1897 - LT Robert E. Peary departs on year long Arctic Expedition which makes many important discoveries, including one of largest meteorites, Cape York. 1918 - Armored cruiser USS San Diego sunk off Fire Island, NY by a mine laid by U-156.

July 20, 1960 - In first launch of Polaris missile, USS George

Washington (SSBN 598) successfully fires 2 operational Polaris missiles while submerged off Florida. 1964 - Four Navy divers enter Project SEALAB I capsule moored 192 feet on the ocean floor off Bermuda for 11 day experiment. 1969 - Former Navy pilot Neil Armstrong is first man to set foot on the moon. While taking the first step, he said, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." Armstrong was

Commander of Apollo 11 which during its 8 day mission landed on the Sea of Tranquility.

July 21, 1823 - After pirate attack, LT David G. Farragut leads landing party to destroy pirate stronghold in Cuba. 1946 - In first U.S. test of adaptability of jet aircraft to shipboard operations, XFD-1 Phantom makes landings and takeoffs without catapults from Franklin D. Roosevelt.

July 22, 1905 - Body of John Paul Jones moved to Annapolis,

MD for reburial. 1964 - Four Navy Divers (LCDR Robert Thompson, MC;

Gunners Mate First Class Lester Anderson, Chief Quartermaster

Robert A. Barth, and Chief Hospital Corpsman Sanders Manning) submerge in Sealab I for 10 days at a depth of 192 feet, 39 miles off Hamilton, Bermuda. They surfaced on 31 July 1964.

July 23, 1947 - First Navy all jet squadron (VF-17A) receives its first aircraft (FH). 1958 - USS Nautilus (SSN-571) departs Pearl Harbor for first submerged transit of North Pole.

July 25, 1866 - Rank of Admiral created. David G. Farragut is appointed the first Admiral in the U.S. Navy

July 26, 1912 - First airborne radio communications from naval aircraft to ship (LT John Rodgers to USS Stringham)

July 28, 1916 - Navy establishes a Code and Signal Section which initially worked against German ciphers and tested the security of communications during U.S. naval training maneuvers. 1926 - Team of scientists from Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and Carnegie Institution determine height of the Ionosphere through use of radio pulse transmitter developed by NRL 1973 - Launch of Skylab 3, the second manned mission to the first

U.S. manned space station, was piloted by MAJ Jack R. Lousma,

USMC with CAPT Alan L. Bean, USN as the Commander of the mission and former Navy electronics officer, Owen K. Garriott as

Science Pilot. The mission lasted 59 days, 11 hours and included 858 Earth orbits.

July 29, 1846 - Sailors and Marines from U.S. sloop Cyane cap- ture San Diego

July 30, 1918 - Units of First Marine Aviation Force arrive at

Brest, France 1942 - FDR signs act establishing WAVES (Women Accepted for

Volunteer Emergency Service). During World War II, over 80,000 officer and enlisted women served in the WAVES. 1945 - Japanese submarine, I-58, sinks USS Indianapolis (CA-35) in Philippine Sea; 316 out of 1199 crew survived.

July 31, 1815 - Commodore Stephen Decatur concludes agree- ment with Bey of Tunis to compensate U.S. for seizure of mer- chant ships during the War of 1812. 1874 - Commissioning of USS Intrepid, first U.S. warship equipped with torpedoes 1912 - First attempt to launch an airplane by catapult made at

Annapolis. 1964 - All-nuclear task force with USS Long Beach, USS

Enterprise, and USS Bainbridge leaves Norfolk, VA to begin voy- age, Operation Sea Orbit, to circle the globe without refueling.

They returned on 3 October. (Source: www.history.navy.mil)

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